Definition Of SME In China

rendering Of SME In chinaAbstractChapter 1 Introduction1.1 footingA larger-than-life number of Small and Medium sized Enterprises (SMEs) came discover in 1980s as china has been moving from a pennyrally planned system towards a market-oriented economy. State-owned openings (SOEs) guard been involved in the economical reforms. Until the end of 2004, study SOEs rapidly change into low-toned and medium non-SOEs. At the same time, many SMEs sprouted as the implementation of non-SOE promotional material policy. Nowadays, Chinese SMEs w be increasingly dedicated to chinas economic ontogeny. As recorded until 2007, thither ar 42,291 medium-sized opening moves and 2,327,969 crushed enterprises which represent 1.78 percent and 98 percent respectively of the bring number of enterprises operating in chinawargon. The output pass judgment of SMEs contributed at least(prenominal) 60 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) as come up as generating more(prenominal)(preno minal) than than than 82 percent of economic consumption opportunities in China. Since SMEs growth rapidly and pay the overcritical roles in Chinas economic, in order to improve SMEs deed, the government has provided various ways to support SMEs such(prenominal) as introduced promotion law in 2003, issued a document State Council on Encouraging, financial backing and Guiding the Development of Private and Other Non-Public Owned Economies in 2005 and publish the SMEs growth project in 2006.Despite the external support, the internal portion such as benevolent resource counseling (HRM) has been evolving dramatically in recent years. The Chinese labor market is characterized by a enormous pool of poorly qualified personnel, more than 15 per cent of the populations atomic number 18 illiterate and many university graduates lack marketable skills. The shortage of top-class master keys and managers is acute, especially in argonas such as accounting, HRM and marketing. Aggravatin g such shortages is the concentration of professionals in the major coastal cities of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou (Verburg, 1996). human Resource Management in China as new as its market economy, with its handed-down personnel administrative system undergoing a period of pro run aground change. Besides, HRM in China atomic number 18 different from those in other countries because of different political, economic systems and social and pagan backgrounds. Therefore, HRM in China faces several enigmas. First, Chinese enterprises in prevalent do non have a systematic approach to HRM that is consistent with their enterprise occupation dodging. Second, despite the oversupply of labor, many employees ar experiencing recruitment and retention problems. Third, there is a lack of an effective system which weds long motivation and bear upon with reward. Forth, there is a lack of coherence and persistence in enterprise training. The growth of human seat of government is ob viously dawdle behind that of enterprise profit (Pawan, 2004).Hence, this study aims to find out what argon the problems roughly HRM in Chinese SMEs, what atomic number 18 the roles of HRM in SMEs, how is the role of HRM pertain employee mathematical transit, and extent where this employee performance ask system performance.1.1.1 Definition of SME in ChinaWith the SME Promotion Law of China effect in 2003, the new commentary of SME came out as well. The new guidelines base on the number of employees, tax tax income and total assets of enterprises. The SME definition in China is quiet complex. Such as the specific criteria about the total assets of enterprises in industrial sector, including mining, manufacturing, electric power, gas, irrigate production and supply and construction. However, in the industries like transportation, wholesale and retail patronage organisation, and hotels and consistaurants, there is no assets requirement. Guidelines for the industrial sec tor requires SMEs to employ a maximum 2,000 tribe, and to have an annual r fifty-fiftyue not top outing RMB300 million. Their total assets should not exceed RMB 400 million. Medium-sized enterprises should employ a minimum of 300 people. Their annual revenue and total assets should not exceeding RMB30 million and 40 million respectively. The rest atomic number 18 classified as small enterprises (Details see debunk 1-1). Consequently, an SME in China whitethorn be quite large relative to SMEs in other countries. Therefore, this paper chief(prenominal)ly counselinges on small enterprises (SEs), including the problems of SE, the survey of SEs, and the recommendations about human resource perspective for SEs. render 1-1 The definition of SME in China1.1.2 Challenges to Chinese SMEsDuring the twenty-first century, straines became more than slim round became anorexic. Cost press clipping come acrossd impressive short-term results. According to some studies, about 50 per cent o f the company cost is the employee salary pay. Therefore, in order to cut achievement cost, companies start to cut employee salary. Consequently, cutting the pay for the employee ca apply employee disgratification and left. In China, the serious problem which the organization faces is the shortage of skilled staff to carry out nutriment and repairs or lack of trained employee. Likewise, one of the signifi baset difficulties of SME is the cost of doing business in industrial areas and host towns are high physical al-Qaeda is poor and operational costs are high.1.2 Research objectivesIn general, small firms pay less(prenominal) forethought to human resource solicitude than their larger counterparts do (Barron et al., 1987 Hornsby and Kuratko, 1990). The available empirical information on HRM at sink in SMEs suggests that smaller firms trade name less use of high performance HRM practices than larger organizations do (Barron et al., 1987 Homsby and Kuratko, 1990). This is in line with the finding that small organizations are in general more likely to operate in an informal and flexible carriage than larger firms are. For voice, Koch and McGrath (1996) find that, normally, firm size is positively related with the incidence of HRM cookery and formal training, and with the level of overall HRM sophistication. Westhead and Storey (1997, 1999) find that deuce managers and employees are less likely to get formal training in a small firm. In a study by capital of Mississippi et al., (1989), smaller companies are found to have less adjudge performance appraisals, less likelihood of bonuses based on company productivity and less training than larger companies do. Aldrich and Langton (1997) find that larger companies have more formalized recruitment practices. However, firm size is not the only factor in predicting HRM practices. A large heterogeneity exists in the type and formalization of HRM practices found among smaller firms.Thus, this study aims to fin d out the problems of HRM in spite of appearance Chinese SMEs, to gain our agnizeing of HRM practices in SMEs and seek out what are the roles of HRM in SMEs. What is more, the wedge of HRM practice will be also considered, via the chain of unwrap HRM, mitigate outcomes, to mitigate firm performance, and then to better and more sustainable economic performance in the national economy. As well as what are the challenges for HRM in Chinses SMEs.1.3 Problem statementThe importance of HRM has received much anxiety in recent years. Some researchers approved that the practive of HRM might lead to better HRM outcomes that cigaret enhance firm performance (Beer, Spector, Lawerence, Mills and Walton 1984 Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna 1984 Guest 1987 1997 Schuler 1988 1997). As well as suggest by Boselie et al.,(2001) and Guest (1997), increase engagement of high performance HRM practices is generally associated with improved firm performance. Moreover, as MeEvoy (1984) already suggest ed, HRM practices may be an all- classical(prenominal) cause of small-firm success or failure. However, there has different celestial horizon of HRM. Some indicated that there is a weak link between HRM and performance (Lee and Chee 1996 MacDeffie 1995 Purchell 1995 Dunphy and Stace 1992 Wong et al. 1997). In the recent Chinese economy, what are roles of HRM may contribute to better behavioral outcomes, and thus lead to better enterprise performance? Therefore, this study addressed the pursuance research questionsRQ1 What are the roles of HRM in Chinese SMEs?RQ2 Do the roles of HRM enhance employee performance? If so, which role is the near main(prenominal)?RQ3 To what extent the employee performance affect the organizational performance?RQ4 What are the challenges to HRM in Chinese SMEs?The fundamental hypothesis is that the roles of HRM improve employee satisfaction. Further, positive employee satisfaction is positively gibe to employee performance. Consequently, positiv e employee performance is positively correlated to organizational performance.The morphologic Equation Model as bellowOrganizational performanceEmployee performanceEmployee satisfactionThe role of HRMH1 The role of HRM improve employee satisfactionH2 Positive employee satisfaction is positively correlated to employee performanceH3 Positive employee performance is positively correlated to organizational performance1.4 Research motivationHow to manage an organizations take a leakforce is a fundamental aspect of each organization, irrespective of its size. Enterprises are faced with the line of work of recruiting and retaining a suitable workforce. This is not only a challenge for large enterprises, but also for small and medium-sized enterprises. The increasing tutelage on HRM in SMEs is a comparatively recent phenomenon. HR- researchers have largely ignored the SMEs, even though smaller companies could be fruitful subjects for empirical investigation because their numbers, the gr owth-rates and not least diversity in the qualitative aspects of management practices.Traditionally, HRM is not existence seen as important as other departments like marketing, accounting, operation. There are two reasons for the lack of interest for the HRM in SMEs. Firstly, the managers and/or owners of the SMEs, often ignored personnel, or HR issues like training and provement, performance management, employee counseling and so on It waits that the mangers have the contemplate that HRM is unresponsive or not tailorised enough to their considers, and it is considered as well as costly and activity to carry for a small organization. The lack of appropriateness, expectation of the activities being too bureaucratic, time consuming and the lack of clarity concerning order effects etc., has resulted in very limited attention to the approach and the techniques associated with it among management (often without any background friendship on personnel and HR). Earlier studies pr esent even traditional personnel activities are rather seldom utilize in SMEs.Accordingly, with the growth of SMEs in China, and SMEs have increasingly contributed to Chinas economic growth, we invite to pay attention to the SMEs performance, or we can say pay attention to HRM in SMEs. As HRM issue always been ignored, especially in SMEs, the researcher attend to do this research to explore the problems regarding HRM within SMEs and the roles of HRM in SMEs as well as the challenges for HRM in Chinese SMEs.1.5 Scope of research base on regional distribution (see EXHIBIT 1-2), 68.58 percent of SMEs are fit(p) in the east of China, 20.14 percent in the middle of China, 11.28 percent in the west of China. Small enterprises in the top atomic number 23 provinces make up 48.4 percent of all small enterprises. These provinces are all located in the eastern area of China which is Jiangsu, Zhengjiang, Guandong, Shanghai, and Shandong with 11.6 percent, 11 percent, 10.4 percent, 9.9 perce nt, 8.9 percent, and 7.6 percent of all SEs, respectively.EXHIBIT 1-2Distribution of registered types of small enterprises (see EXHIBIT 1-3) is as follows domestic enterprises in mainland China make up 96.1 percent of the total HK-, Macao- and Taiwan-based enterprises, 2 percent and orthogonal enterprises, 1.9 percent. Mean plot of ground, private enterprises comprise 66.1 percent of all SEs.EXHIBIT 1-3Chapter 2 publications review2.1 kind-hearted Resource Management overview ()HRM is about the management of an organizations workforce. Managing a workforce first of all requires the presence of a workforce, which calls for activities in the handle of recruitment, selection, appraisal and compensation. Next, the workforce must(prenominal) be organized. Tasks and responsibilities must be mulish and communicated. To attend that employees possess required cognition and skills, training and development activities can be carried out. Such activities may influence the working climate within the organization, and thus employee commitment and job satisfaction. Organizations may also employ activities that today aim to improve commitment and satisfaction, either because job satisfaction is a goal in itself, or because it is trustd to have a positive usurpation on organizational performance.2.1.1 Roles of Human Resource ManagementIn the ultimo few years, roles of HR professionals were viewed in terms of transition from operational to strategicalalalalalal, qualitative to quantitative, policing to partnering, short-term to long-term, administrative to consultative, functionally oriented to business oriented, internally focussed to externally and customer-focused, reactive to proactive, activity-focused to solutions-focused. However, these transitions are too simplistic. In fact, the roles of HR professionals are in reality, multiple and not single. In order to create value and deliver results, HR professionals must begin not by rivet on the activities or work of HR but by specify the deliverables of that work. Therefore, Dave, (1997) came out the framework of four key roles of HR professional (See EXHIBIT 2-1). The two axes represent the HR professionals focus and activities. Focus ranges from long-term/strategic to short-term/operational. HR professionals must learn to be both strategic and operational, focusing on the long term and short term. Activities rang from managing process (HR tools and systems) to managing people. These two axes delineate four principal HR roles which are (1) Management of strategic human resources (2) Management of firm infrastructure (3) Management of the employee persona and (4) management of transformation and change. In other words, the roles of HR professional are strategic partner administrative expert employee champion and change agent. Table 2-1 summarizes the deliverables, simile and activities the HR professional must perform to fulfill the role.EXHIBIT 2-1 HR Roles in Building a Competitive OrganizationTable 2-1 Definition of HR rolesManagement of strategic Human ResourcesThis role focuses on positioning HR strategies and practices with business strategy which requires that the HR professional works as a strategic partner, practice uping to ensure the success of business strategies. Translating business strategic into HR practices so that the business can adapt to change, better meet customer demands and achieve financial performance through its more effective execution of strategy.Management of Firm InfrastructureManagement an organizational infrastructure is a traditional HR role. This role requires HR professionals contrive and deliver efficient HR processes for staffing, training, appraising, rewarding, promoting and managing the flow of employees. HR professionals must ensure that these organizational processes are designed and delivered efficiently.Management of Employee ContributionThis role indicates that HR professionals involve in the day-to-day problems, concerns and postulate of employees. As employee champions, HR professionals need to understand employees take and ensure that those needs are met, overall employee contribution goes up. Therefore, HR professionals should be active and aggressive in developing human resource, linking employee contributions to the organizations success.Management of Transformation and ChangeThe final role of HR professional is to management transformation and change. Transformation entails fundamental cultural change within the firm. Change refers to the ability of an organization to improve the design and implementation of initiatives and to undertake cycle time in all organizational activities. HR professionals suffice to indentify and implement processes for change.Ulrich, in conjunction with Brockbank, reformulated the 1997 model in 2005, listing the following rolesEmployee advocate focuses on the need of todays employees through listening understanding and empathizing.Human capital develop er in the role of managing and developing human capital (individuals and teams), focuses on preparing employees to be successful in the future.Functional expert concerned with HR practices that are central to HR value, acting with insight on the cornerstone of the body of knowledge they process. Some are delivered through administrative efficacy (such as technology or process design), and others through policies, menus and interventions. Necessary to constitute between the foundation HR practices recruitment, learning and development, rewards, etc and the emerging HR practices such as communications, work process and organization design, and executive leadership development.Strategic partner consists of multiple dimensions business expert, change agent, strategic HR planner, knowledge manager and consultant, combining them to align HR systems to sponsor accomplish the organizations quite a little and mission, helping managers to get things done, and disseminating learning across the organization.Leader leading the HR function, collaborating with other functions and providing leadership to them, setting and enhancing the standards for strategic thinking and ensuring corporate governance.2.1.2 system Human Resource ManagementThere is a growing awareness of the importance of human resources as well as strategy HRM. An built-in component of organizing and staffing is SHR, which is becoming more widely lie withd as critical to developing and implementing considered responses to profit pressures (Kawalek and wastall, 2005 Lam and Schaunbroeck, 1998 Murphy and Zandvakili, 2005). As a result, .Much attention has been given to SHR in recent years (Ericksen and Dyer, 2005 Martin-Alcazar, Romero-Fernandez, and Sanchez-Gardey, 2005 Richard and Johnson, 2004).Strategy HRM is an approach to fashioning decisions on the intentions and plans of the organization in the shape of the policies, programmes and practices concerning the employment relationship, resour cing, learning and development, performance management, reward, and employee relations. According to Hendary and Pettigrew (1986), strategic HRM has four meanings1. The use of planning2. A logical approach to the design and management of personnel systems based on an employment policy and manpower strategy and often underpinned by a doctrine3. Matching HRM activities and policies to some explicit business strategy4. Seeing the people of the organization as a strategic resource for the achievement of militant advantage.SHR is concerned with the contributions HR strategies make to organizational effectiveness, and how these contributions are accomplished (Ericksen and Dyer, 2005) and involves pattern and implementing a set of internally consistent policies and practices to ensure that an ganizations human capital contributes to overall business objectives (Baird and Heshoulam, 1988 Huselid, Jackson, and Schuler, 1997 Jackson and Schuler, 1995 Richard and Johnson, 2004 Schuler and Ja ckson, 1987).The idea that HR management systems can play a significant role in creating success for organizations is not new. Porter (1985), for example, argued that HR management practices can help organizations gain matched advantage by lowering costs, increasing sources of product and service differentiation, or some combination of the two.2.1.3 Strategy Human resource vs Traditional Human ResourceStrategic HR differs from traditional HR in a number of ways1. In a traditional approach to HR, the main responsibility for people management programs rests with staff specialists in the corporate HR division. A strategic approach arranges the responsibility for managing people with the individuals close to in contact with them, their respective line managers.2. Traditional HR focuses its activities on employee relations, ensuring that employees are motivated and productive and that the organization is in compliance with all essential employment laws. Strategic HR focus to partnersh ips with internal and external.3.Transitioning From HR to SHRAlthough HR has made great strides in becoming more strategic, it has yet to richly achieve an realized role as a strategic business partner. SHR expands the traditional role of I i R from bureaucratic to strategic (Leonard, 2002). Due to the tremendous differences between traditional HR perspectives and SHR, it is not disgraceful that few organizations are successful in transitioning to SHR (Fisher, Schoenfeldt, and Shaw, 2003). For HR to constrain a strategic business partner, a bump off change in expectation is needed. Table 1 provides a discussion of the key issues or aspects of HR management and examines differences between what is required for traditional and strategic HR.Fundamental expectationLepak and Snell (1998) report that a survey of 1,050 companies indicated that HR professionals devote less than trey of their time to SHR activities. Instead, their time is spent on traditional activities. (Fisher, Sch oenfeldt, and Shaw, 2003 Creen, 2002). In short, the staple mind-set of traditional HR is very transactional in nature-strict focus on these basic activities does not bode well for perceiving HR as strategic. The most frequently cited barriers limiting HR departments to more effectively contribute to their organizations bottom line were HRs strong focus on administration and the inability to immediately measure HRs impact on the bottom line (Fegiey, 2006). This may contribute to a perception that HR merely plays an operational role and is not an important strategic partner. Therefore, SHR requires a different mind-set, one that focuses on organizational transformations, as well as transactions. SHR can play a more consultative role in organizations in which HR professionals help organizations achieve goals within the larger organizations HR system (Creen, 2002). Additionally, SHR can be more involved in transformations using change management techniques instead of rigorously focusi ng on the transactionalactivities. SHR can fulfill an important role in change management by helping upper management understand the fear of change and the negative reactions to it, as well as meliorate anxiety and prepare the work force for change. It appears that some HR professionals recognize this need (cf., Harvey and Dentn, 1999), but it is uncertain if HR is currently active to take on such roles.View of OrganizationSome skin that HR professionals suffer from a lack of vision when it comes to the big mental picture of the organization Leonard, 1998). HR management tends to hold a micro view of the organization and HR managers are viewed as somewhat insular, focusing altogether on their HR departments and on day to-day operations. In fact, many HR professionals see the HR function as a separate entity and are not involved in finding business solutionsCaudron, 2002). For example, HR planning often takes place separately from the overall strategic planning process and only at set intervals (e.g., annually). Additionally, HR planning is often used as a means of convincing top management to divvy up sufficient resources for HR rather than to enhance the organizational performance process (Lam and Schaubroeck, 1998). Although HR planning is important in its own right, even the most sophisticated HR planning processes are ineffective unless done in concert with the organizations overall planning process (David, 2005 Lam and Schaubroeck, 1998).HR should develop a broad and far-reaching vision and understanding of where the organization is headed and how it can help steer the organization in that direction (Leonard, 1998). The importance of the need for a fit between HR strategy and the overall business strategy cannot be over emphasized. HR needs to focus on recruitment alignment, selection, compensation, discipline, training, reward and recognition processes, and leadership development with the strategy and goals of the overall organization. HR must unde rstand the business and make a business contingency for its decisions, programs, and practices to receive full put onance at the planning table.Education and studyAnother area where HR needs enhancement to operate more strategic is in its formal direction and training (Meilich, 2005). First, many HR practitioners do not have formal training or direction in HR management. Recently, the Society for Human Resource Management surveyed members concerning the strategic nature of HR. Surprisingly, only 35 percent of the respondents indicated that their highest level of education blameless involved a concentration in HR (Fegley, 2006). Additionally, many HR professionals do not have business degrees, often reflecting inadequate knowledge of business principles and practices. The survey revealed that only 20 percent of the respondents indicated that their highest degree realised was a B.B.A. or MBA (Fegley, 2006). Consequently, many HR professionals may not have adequate understandin g of business concepts that are critical for acceptance as a strategic partner. HR has the potential to positively affea numerous important business activities but HR professionals need to strengthen their knowledge of HR practices and regulations as well as financial knowledge, especially in the areas of business finance, financial planning, and accounting, to do so. While a change concerning HR education and training is needed, traditional HR education should not be abandoned. Rather, its important to develop business-related capabilities to complement the technical HR capabilities that HR professionals already possess. slender SkillsAnother potential barrier to strategic HR management is the basic skill set or competencies that traditional HR professionals possess. Like lawyers, HR professionals are trained to be orderly, keep accurate employment records, complete documentation, and protect organizations from litigation (Green, 2002). Although such skills are necessary, many HR p rofessionals mistakenly see this as their only job. Senior managers need HR professionals to serve as problem solvers, conflict managers, coaches, and liaisons with considerable organizational savvy (Green, 2002). HR practitioners must re-examine their existing skills and competencies to meet these new challenges. IIR professionals may run into to develop additional skill sets such as critical thinking, strategic planning, project management, organizational analysis, consulting, and change management (Hayton, Cohen, Hume, Kaufman, and Taylor, 2005). This is quite a gear from what is traditionally expected, but it is essential for HR professionals who are working to become strategic partners.View of EmployeesTraditionally, HR views employees as heads or costs to the organization. With traditional HR serving mostly an administrative function, this attitude is somewhat understandable. However, this view is certainly not strategic in nature, and surely will become even more problemati c as the United States experiences the labor shortages that are forecasted. The tight labor market of the present and future will make recruiting and retention top priorities in most organizations (Leonard, 1998). Hnder these conditions, the margin for error is small and the costs associated with selecting the wrong employees or losing the right ones is exacerbated. Therefore, it is critical to view employees as extremely valuable sources of produaivity and innovation.TimeframeAs previously discussed, traditional HR professionals focus more closely on the transactional aspeas of their jobs. Most of these transaaional functions fulfill immediate needs of the organization and have a near-term deadline. As a result, most traditional HR practitioners are somewhat short-term in their focus. In contrast, SHR requires a long-term focus encompassing both the immediate and future needs of the organization. SHR must anticipate where the company is going to be in five to six years and help org anizations understand the impact of changing demographics and expectations of the work force (Leonard, 1998).Process/Outcome Orientationwhen it comes to the bottom line, many believe HR has generally been out to lunch (Leonard, 1998). Some HR professionals seem more concerned with processes than with results. While issues concerning processes (e.g., employee participation, fairness, due process) are important, IIR must place more emphasis on results and work to understand how internal decisions and actions affect the bottom line. To accomplish this effectively, HR needs to measure the effects of its systems and processes, and introduce their impact on the bottom tine to gain equal status in the strategic planning process. Currently, fewer than half of HR departments have an established method to measure the effectiveness of their strategies (Fegley, 2006). Through measurement, HR can help demonstrate its value to the organization while tracking how well the organization is implemen ting various policies, systems, and initiatives, and ensuring that the desired behaviors and processes support the organizations strategic goals (Pfeffer, 1995).RiskHR professionals are typically risk averse, tending to err on the side of safeguard as they comply with the myriad laws and regulations. HR is often seen as the entity that clams companies from doing the right things (Caudron, 1997) rather than helping companies achieve their goals and objectives. One can argue that extreme caution may be appropriate in some circumstances however. traditional HR can generalize this approach across its functions. More risk taking is required in todays business environment. Organizations must now respond to change faster and with greater risk while operating in an unpredictable internal and external environment (Briggs and Keogh, 1999). HR practitioners should display a willingness to try new things to meet the challenges of todays global food market (Leonard, 2002).Response to ChangeHR should accept some blame for the stumbling blocks experient in working to achieve equal status as a strategic business partner. Chief among these problems is the HR professions resistance to change (Leonard, 2002). As a group, HR practitioners have been slow to respond to changes in their jobs and in the business environment. perhaps the most critical or damaging instance is the slow acceptance of technology. Originally, numerous HR professionals viewed technology as something that would go along many of their jobs, rather than enhance their roles and responsibilities. Purthermore, some were reluctant to give up their paper-based processes (Leonard, 2002). This reluctance to accept technology damages the professions image and makes HR drawn-out to react to workplace changes, To become more strategic, HR must accept and respond to changes in the business environment. In addition to ensuring their own viability, HR professionals should show more responsiveness to change in the fu ture. HR Systems and Practices Perhaps to simplify and standardize their policies and practices, traditional HR often prefers a one-size fits-a

SLA: Language Acquisition Vs Learning

SLA Language science Vs culture bilingualistism10/1/17 asylum to BilingualismDuring this lecture, I learned the definition and the immensity of bilingualism. Throughout the days, the definition of bilingualism has changed belatedly from possesses native-like check off of ii or to a greater extent lyric poems (Bloomfield, 1933) to operates in twain phraseologys on a daily basis (David, 1999, pg 157). As nearly as this, I also came to comprehend that in that respect atomic number 18 a number of interlink issues that affect bilingualism such as race, power, familiarity, and culture. This evoke me beca physical exertion I did non get wind how much in the world affects bilingualism and how every last(predicate) of these issues be interconnected. For example, if a family are racist and have strong political views against immigrants, they are less in all probability to support bilingualism and their baby bird/ tikeren are less likely to be scatter to teaching a new linguistic communication due to their parents views. Learning rough bilingualism and understanding the importance of it will serve up me in my portion as a instructor as it will jock me to spring bilingual chelaren tonus more comfortable and wel sleep with in my classroomA1.In this lecture, we were induct into classs and given a scenario astir(predicate) a bilingual claw attack into the school. In the group that I was part of, our scenario was a little Spanish girl coming into primary 2. In our group, we proveed the importance of making this nipper feel welcome and ensuring that she understood what was going. To embark on with, we thought that asking the tiddler if she feels comfortable enough to share her background with class would be a good way to show her that as her teacher, I am interested in where she has come from while at the same establishing the aim of position the baby bird understands and evict utilize. We also thought that having, for examp le, the colours up on a wall display in some(prenominal) slope and Spanish would help the child to differentiate between twain languages and get use to the English whilst motionlessness having the comfort of her counterbalance language.Using the Learning in 2+ Languages (2005) document during this lecture made me realise how important bilingualism is and how near it can be for both young children and bountifuls. I learned that bilingualism does not delay a childs cognitive phylogenesis like some reckon but brings a number of cognitive advantages such as a greater creative potential and a greater alive(predicate)ness of how languages operate.17/1/17 Second Language eruditeness Language Acquisition Vs LearningThroughout this session, I was introduced to a number of different hypotheses, and their criticisms, ring how a person acquires / learns a different language. According to Krashens Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis (1982) there are two distinct goes to learning a la nguage Acquisition or acquiring a language and Learning a language. acquiring a language refers to the passive process of obtaining the subtleties of a language with and through infixed learning however learning a language refers to the busy process in which learners start aware of the rules of the language they are essay to learn. However, McLaughlin (1978) states that this theory is impossible to prove. This interested me as I had never clear that there was a belief that acquiring and learning a language were two different processes. Reflecting back to my own put throughs of learning a languageA2, I was always taught the rules and grammar of language rather than acquiring it through natural processes because, in my own opinion, I believe that they are definitely two divert processes but I also believe that these are closely inter-connected.For me, the rough interesting hypothesis that we were introduced to in this lecture was The Affective Filter Hypothesis. This is the stem that emotional variables can have an deed and pr neverthelesst someone from learning a language. These include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. The lower the emotive filter, the more language the educatee will acquire. This shows that a child with low self-confidence whitethorn not pick up a language as easily as a child with high self-confidence. According to the ONS Child and Adolescent genial Health Survey (2004), 2.2% or about 96,000 children have an anxiety disorder. This shows that well-nigh likely, teachers will be faced with the challenge of trying to teach a language to a child who cannot acquire it as easily as the another(prenominal) children in the class. However, Krashen claimsA3 that children do not have the same affectional filter as adults but also experience differences related to the affective filters. An affective filter just now lines for individual variation in language encyclopaedism, it cannot be applied to all children.As well as this, we also looked at the deal Us In A Sense of belong (2009) which highlighted the importance of improving the learning of some pupils. As well as this, the document made me aware of the shift in patters of migration, especially since 2004. cod to easier access and cheaper travel, the number of immigrants coming to Scotland has increased dramatically. more of those immigrating to Scotland bring with them young children who have to be put into the teaching system. This Count Us In document emphasises the importance of teachers in living newly-arrived children and ensuring that they can access the curriculum. As a trainee primary teacher, this is extremely important to me as children essential be able to access the curriculum in order to learn and succeed.24/1/17 Language and SocietyWatching Jane Elliots try outs in prepossess both shocked me and intrigued me. The method that she uses to teach the children about discrimination is both effective and intriguing but it is also ve ry misuse. However, this experiment took position in the 1960s therefore even though it is wrong in the current educational context, it may not have been as wrong then.By telling the children one day that the blue eyed plurality were mitigate than the browned eyed people, it changed their attitudes towards each other drastically and even resulted in some children being aggressive to one another. As in short as the teacher constitutes that the people with blue eyes are better and more superior than the children with brown eyes, the brown eyed children look raise up and shocked whereas the blue eyed children approximate it is funny and they are excited. Jane Elliot forces the brown eyed children to wear collars and doesnt allow them to play on any of the resort area equipment. She gives the blue eyed children special privileges and they take full advantage of these. In the reverse situation, the blue eyed children become upset and come to realise how the brown eyed children fe lt the day before. As well as this, we see that when the children are given privileges and are treated as superior, they do their work quicker and their learning is improved. At the end of this day, the children all come back unneurotic and discuss how being discriminated against made them feel. One child described it as feeling like a dog on a leash. Many of the children came to realise that being discriminated against for something that you cannot control is one of the mop feelings and that no one should be discriminated against.This experiment made me realise that in my role as a primary teacher, it is essential to teach my pupils the importance of respecting everyone and treating everyone the same. Tomlinson (2005, pg 154) states that Failure to develop a curriculum for a multiethnic society has contributed to an increase in xenophobia and racism. This made me believe that equality is something that children need to become aware of at a young age and it is part of my clientel e to make them aware of it. If, for example, a child of another race came into my classroom, my employment would be to ensure that all the children in my classroom were respectful and did not treat them any different unsloped because of the colour of their skin. While this experiment made me realise all of this, it also made me realise that when in a classroom, treating children differently can have a massive effect on their attitudes to one another therefore teachers need to be carefulA4.31/01/17 The sparing ContextThe number of families immigrating to Scotland has increased throughout the years and, particularly in 2004, the number of immigrants that came to Scotland increased considerably (Count Us In, pg 2). During this lecture, we examined the statistics of both immigration and the number of immigrant children moving into new schools. For me as a develop primary teacher, it was interesting to see how the number of immigrants coming to Scotland affected the schooling statis tics. The reasons that people move to another country can vary drastically. Many move for family reasons or new careers whereas others move because they want a smear of safety.Immigration has a huge impact on both Scottish society and schools. As a society, we have to be more accept as a whole as well as just in the communities where the immigrants move to. Showing respect to all families and becoming aware of what some of these families will face every day is essential. When a family emigrate to Scotland and put their child(ren) into a school, it affects the school sectorA5. As primary teachers, we must think about bilingualism and become aware of diversity. Inside the classroom, we have to ensure that the child is comfortable and understands what is going on at all times as it is our responsibility to make sure that they do not fall back end on the work and are learning.In my role as a primary teacher, it is important for me to expose children to a atomic number 16 language a t a young age as this is the best window of prospect and is more likely to lead the child to become bilingual than video to a second language in teenage or adult years. Many parents believe that they should not introduce a second language until they have amply established one language however it is more difficult to introduce a second language later on. As well as this, introducing a second language later on makes it difficult for parents to interact with this language and use it around the house. According to the Count Us In A Sense of Belonging document, a child learning a second language can returns from a number of cognitive advantages that are associated with bilingualism.14/02/17 Language and identity elementThe people that we spend the most time with have the biggest influence on our language and our identity. According to Baker (2006, pg 136) A6we construct our identities yet they are make outd and contain by other people, situations and influences on us. Everyone f orms multiple fond identities depending on the group and interactions with other people. Learning a second language is affected by our interactions with others and helps us to find a voice within a social group. As well as this, it is more than just gaining vocabulary and grammar, it is about being believed and being respected as language says things about our set and knowledge. There are many layers to our language and when we head start learn to converse, we speak in the same ways as those around us. Introducing a second language at this give can encourage a child to acquire the language quicker while learning it alongside their first language.During this lecture, we discussed the issues around age and second language acquisition. Younger learners are neither more nor less successful in second language acquisition than older learners however children who learn a second language in child do tend to achieve higher capability levels than those who begin later on childhood. Even though length of exposure is an important fixings in learning a second language, in a lump classroom setting, older learners tend to learn quicker than younger learners do. In the early years, second language acquisition is dependent on the teacher providing suitable materials and re origins to children and ensuring that learning is enjoyable. As a primary teacher, it is important to make learning a second language more enjoyable for my pupils through resources such as songs etc. By doing so, they are more likely to remember what I have taught them and they are more likely to be engaged in the lesson.28/02/17 Supporting Bilingual Learners in the Classroom (1)Meeting the of necessity and supporting bilingual children is an essential role for a primary teacher. When a bilingual child first comes into a teachers classroom, it is important for you to find them a buddy that they can talk to, or if they are not comfortable talking, just listen to. This not solo benefits the bilingual child, but there are also cognitive benefits for monolingual learners who work with bilingual learners and good utilization for bilingual learners is good practice for all learners. In my role as a primary teacher, I need to ensure that I am supporting bilingual learners at all times as well as supporting all other children in my classroom. It is important to ensure that everyone in the classroom knows what is fortuity throughoutA7 every lesson.Cummins (1976) refers to The Threshold Theory which describes the relationship between cognition and the level of bilingualism. The theory is represented as a house which has three floors and two linguistic ladders, representing L1 and L2, on each side. The further up they are on the ladders and floors, the greater chance the children have of being bilingual and obtaining cognitive advantages. As well as this, Cummins (1980, 1981) uses an Iceberg Analogy and describes a common vestigial proficiency between the first language (L1) and the s econd language (L2). Cummins explains that when exploitation two or more languages, there is a common source where estimations come from meaning that individuals can use two or more language with ease. Listening, reading, speaking and writing in the L1 or L2 helps to develop the cognitive system however the language that the learner uses must be well developed in order to be able to process the cognitive challenges of the classroom.Towards the end of this lecture, we reduceed on discussing the importance of supporting the learning of English as an additional language (EAL) in the classroom. New arrivals must feel welcomed and be placed in an appropriate group based on their age and ability meaning that the school and class teacher must take into account the childs previous education background. By carefully placing the child into an appropriate group, the teacher can carefully monitor them and take account of the advantages of collaborative learning. Class tasks must be suitabl y planned and appropriately scaffolded to support EAL learners. Supporting beginners in English is essential and there are a number of strategies which can be used to help these children. For example, musical composition sentence halves to be matched or creating gaps in sentences to be filled. As previously mentioned, good practice for bilingual children is good practice for all children therefore activities like this not only help EAL learners but also help all other children in the classroom. Pairing a child who has a good grasp of the English language with an EAL learner can help when these activities take place as they can help the EAL learner to understand how the sentences work and why the halves go together if they do not fully grasp the concept.A8ReferencesBaker, C. (2011) Foundations of Bilingual rearing and Bilingualism. 5th Ed. McNaughton Gunn USABaker, C. (2006) Foundation of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 4th ed. Clevedon Multilingual MattersBloomfield, L. (19 33) Language. Holt New YorkCummins, J. (1976) The Influence of Bilingualism on cognitive Growth A Synthesis of Research Findings and Explanatory Hypotheses. Working document on Bilingualism, No. 9.David, T. (1999) Young Children Learning. Bilingual Children in a monolingual Society. Sage LondonHer Majestys Inspectorate of Education (2009) Count us in A Sense of Belonging Meeting the Needs of Children and Young People fresh Arrived in Scotland. Online Available http//www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/cuimnnus_tcm4-618947.pdf Accessed 17/1/17.Learning and Teaching Scotland (LTScotland). 2005. Learning in 2(+) languages. Ensuring effective inclusion for bilingual learners. Good practice for teachers, educational establishments and local authorities. Dundee LTScotland.ONS Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey (2004) Accessed http//www.youngminds.org.uk/training_services/ polity/mental_health_statistics Date Accessed 17/1/17Tomlinson, S. (2005b) Race, Ethnicity and Education und er New Labour, Oxford, inOxford Review of Education Vol. 31, No. 1, March 2005, pp. 153-171A1Good pointA2goodA3(ibid.)?A4Good commentaryA5How/in what way(s)?A6A7And why?A8Well compose and fluent make sure that all LOs can be cover by your choice of journal entries we will discussICT Support in agate line lake herring Case StudyICT Support in Business lake herring Case StudyTing Cheuk SzeTopic How do you think ICT / Information System infrastructure and IT strategy at lake herring is supporting the argument? (1451words)A) A short summary of Nolans (1973) salutes of growth modelNolan describes a learning curve in the organic evolution of entropy processing in 1974 Harvard Business Review. Nolan believes that establishments need to understand the growth characteristics associated with each stage of development. understanding this curve is conducive to help organizations effective implementation of culture technology. The first version consisted the stages of initiation, cont agion, falsify, integrating. It eventually expanded to six stages in 1979, which include education administration and maturity.Nolans main content of the stage model microscope stage I, mental hospitalThe organisation introduces computer system to increase its competitiveness. data processing be are lack of control, the establishment of information systems often do not pay attending to economic efficiency in this stage. branch II, ContagionInformation technology applications began to spread in the organisation. The organisation managers began to pay attention to the economic benefits of information systems investing, but the real control does not exist.Stage III, ControlThe solicitude information system became a formal section to control its internal activities and launched a project charge plan and a system development methodology. The current application began to formal, and lay the foundation for the emerging development of information systems.Stage IV, IntegrationOr ganizations began to use databases and telematics technologies to consolidate breathing information systems. Which is the stage that previous systems are integrated with the newer systems.Stage V, Data administrationThe organization begins to examine and evaluate the various cost and benefits of information system social structure, and analyzes and re sacks issues of balance and coordination in all areas of information systems investment.Stage VI, MaturityAt this stage, the information system can meet the needs of go-aheads at all levels. the enterprise will integrate the management process together with the internal and external resources, thus enhancing the competitiveness and development potential of the enterprise.B) deem Nolans Stage of Growth Model (1973) in Cisco caseIn this essay, I will discuss the Cisco case by open Nolan model stage by stage and show how Cisco was followers the Nolan model during the system develop process. Moreover, discuss about the trouble when Cisco well-tried to process to the next stage. For the Cisco case, I will focus on the first version of Nolans Stage of Growth Model (1973) as the essay question require, which is only consider four stages, Initiation, Contagion, Control and Integration stages. Moreover, the fifth stage will be discussed which because it may appropriate in the Cisco case, which is Data administration stage. I will not discuss about the 6th stage. In my view, Cisco had not process to the sixth stage form the case study(2004).Cisco is one of the example can be explain by Nolans Stages of Growth Model. Nolans (1973) stages of growth model modelling is appropriate in the Cisco development process because they are similar which Cisco development process is also following the stage that mention in Nolans model. The model summarises the experiences and law of development of management information systems. It is mostly assumed that the phases in the model are not jumpable, because the organization nee ds some experience before preparing for the next phase of work. The development process in Cisco is almost same as the Nolans model. its sanctioned idea for the construction of management information system is instructive. In-depth understanding of Nolan model may help organisations more effectively manage the process. Although these phases contain some natural growth processes, these growth processes can be effectively coordinated and managed, so that each stage represents a change in the order of prep and management. The first two stages Initiation and ContagionCisco was already experience first two stage before quill Solvik joined Cisco as its CIO in 1993.1984, Cisco Systems was founded in the United States, the founders are two computer scientists from Stanford University. Computer was introduced when the smart set was founded. Computer is a necessary equipment for the ships company because the products and computer are complement in the production line. However, there were only a few individuals can use the computer, for example, the two computer scientist founders. by and by the expansion of Cisco, Enterprises had a certain understanding of the computer. They would like to use computers to solve problems at work, such as more data processing, management and business to bring convenience. Thus, the application began to increase demand, IT applications began to generate interest in enterprises, and the development of software enthusiasm, investment began to increase significantly. It is easy to blindly purchase, blind development of custom software phenomenon, the lack of planning and planning, so the application level is not high, the overall effectiveness of IT cannot be highlighted as Nolan (1974) has been discussed on his paper.Until Peter Solvik joined Cisco, he recognized the problem from the second stage(Contagion), such as data redundancy, data inconsistency, and the date was hard to share. Business managers realized that the use of computers applications was out of control, IT investment growth was fast, but the benefits were not satisfactory. He tried to begin to control the overall development of computer systems, such as the reorganize the IT budget planning, replaced committee and change the reporting relationship. However, Cisco was still stunning in the beginning of the third stage.The third stage ControlBoston joined Cisco as a new CIO after Solvik left in 2001. He finds that there is an ineffectiveness investment on the customized tools. There were nine different tools to access the customer order which create multiple data and different definition on explanation with the order. He thought the conflicts and redundancies is occur because there were not centralized team checking for the company systems which lead to a rise of supernumerary tools. As Nolan (1974) discuss, for the need to control the cost of data processing, managers began to convene users from different sectors of the Committee, to jointly plan t he development of information systems. The management information system became a formal plane section to control its internal activities and launched a project management plan and a system development methodology. The current application began to formal, and lay the foundation for the upcoming development of information systems. In the Cisco case, Boston stopped the investment of the new tools applications and upgraded its ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) system, solving the reporting and intelligence problem and growth its customer database.The fourth stage IntegrationBoston also focussed on funding IT project. It makes the company process to the fourth stage, which is Integration stage. Organizations from the management of computer management information resources. From the first stage to the third stage, commonly a lot of independent entities. Based on control, enterprises began to re-planning and design, the establishment of basic database, and build a matching informati on management system. Enterprise IT construction began by the scattered and single-point development into a system. At this point, corporate executives began unified different enterprise IT organizations systems into a single system for management. People, financial, material and other resources can be integrated in the enterprise sharing, lead to more effective use of existing IT systems and resources. Nolan recognized such integration costs will be higher, longer, and the system is more unstable. However, Cisco did not in the case. Boston encouraged his team being carefully in the enterprise project, tried to reduce the multiple data and different definitions of the order problem to avoid the future large scale of cleanups. It was because it will increase the unnecessary spending if it is useless.The fifth stage Data administrationIn this stage, the organization began a comprehensive study and evaluation of the various costs and benefits of information system construction. The cha llenges had occurred in Cisco, the process of funding budget in a pool from different groups across the world is complex. It is hard to show the benefit of the new enterprise project to every group. Boston started to consider about the communication between the group on order to increase efficacy when starting a new project. This stage, enterprises began to select a unified database platform, data management system and information management platform, unified data management and use of various departments, the basic realization of the system integration of resources, information sharing. IT system planning and resource utilization more efficient.ConclusionNolan stage model summarizes the experiences and rules of management information system development, and its basic idea has directing significance for the construction of management information system.it can be apply in the Cisco case. Nolans (1973) stages of growth model framework is appropriate in the Cisco development process b ecause they are similar which Cisco development process is also following the stage that mention in Nolans model. Cisco was experience from the first stage when it has been founded in 1984 and continue to the fifth stage in 2004. (1451 words)BibliographyAndrew Mcafee, F. Warren Mcfarlan, Alison Berkley wagonfeld (2004) ,Enterprise IT at Cisco. Harvard Business School Publishing, Boston, MA 02163.Nonna, Richard. Managing The Crisis In Data Processing. Harvard Business Review. 57 (2) 115-126.Nolan, Richard (1973). Managing The Computer Resource A Stage Hypothesis. Communications of the ACM. 16 (4) 399-405

The History Of International Cybersecurity Politics Essay

The History Of Inter interior(a) Cyber protective covering Politics EssayThe join States, England, and Continental europium start truly different progression pathes to cyber warranter. The f alone in States and linked Kingdom moot of cyber primarily as a national security problem to be handled by the multitude- which in turn sees the Internet as a twenty percent domain of war to be dominated. The rest of the European alliance, however, sees cyber brats mostly as an irritant for commerce and individual privacy that should be dealt with by noncombatant authorities working in combination with private enterprise.Additionally, while the joined States can make believe a single policy, even though its integrity implemented by m all different federal de incisionments, the European Union is made up of twenty-seven nations with their own laws, notions, and philosophical differences over how to approach cyber adds. Finally, there is NATO, where a unified transitlantic cyber mo untain must be reconciled and arranged in a coherent manner among xxviii allies through with(predicate) a cumbersome bureaucratic process. To make sense of these conflicting visions, this essay reviews cyber storms against NATO members, attempts to outline the challenges of mounting a transatlantic vision for cyber policy, and naughtylights some of the fundamental differences among NATO members.It is helpful to remember that although the Internet is so enscin one cased in most of our lives that it is hard to envision sprightliness without it, the first modern wind vane browser didnt de simply until 1993 and broadband access has only be arise widespread over the stand firm decade. As a result, senior judicature and soldiers break downers did not grow up with the Internet and ar piecemeal having to adapt to emerging cyber realities. Franklin Kramer, who worked as assistant secretary of confession mechanism chthonian President putz Clinton, draws a comparison with th e Great Fire of London, he notes that it nearly destroyed the city in 1666 because an advance in living conditions- wooden houses for many- was not matched by security measures. There were no blastfighting technologies, no onslaughtfighting processes, and no resources devoted to fire fighting. This was still straight more than than dickens centuries later with the Great Chicago Fire. Despite our slow learning curve, in the modern world, while fire may strike, it is not the city-devouring scourge that it once was. Through authorities decrees that established create sets and through volunteer and government- draw off fire departments, a protective-response was established over the centuries.1Former Deputy Secretary of defense mechanism mechanism William J. Lynn III uses a more aggressive analogy The first host aircraft was bought, I think, in 1908, somewhere around there. So were in astir(predicate) 1928, he said. Weve kind of seen some biplanes shoot at each an reinv igorated(prenominal)(prenominal) over France, he added. But we havent really seen kind of what a true cyberconflict is going to look like.2Currently, European policymakers seem to treat cybersecurity more along fire-prevention lines rather than as biplanes over France. And framing is critical when thinking some cyber issues. As Kramer observes, Ask the incorrectly hesitancy, and you generally go out get the wrong answer. And cyber- and what to do about cyber conflict- is an arena where there is generally no capital of New Hampshire on what is the question, sure no agreement on what are the answers, and evolving so fast that questions are transmuted and affect and change the validity of answers that have been given. He argues that the lack of agreement over the nature of the problem, lack of coherent regulation and authority mechanisms, and conflict amidst connectivity and security together make cyber a wicked problem not easily susceptible to resolution.3Lynn manages to fram e the issue in military and security terms but fully acknowledges that the worldly concern is quite blurred and that no clear lines exist in this clean domain. I mean, clearly if you take down significant portions of our economy we would in all probability consider that an onset. But an intrusion stealing data, on the separate hand, in all probability isnt an attack. And there are an enormous number of steps in between those two.4Lynn goes on to say, one of the challenges facing Pentagon strategists is deciding at what limen do you consider something an attack I think the policy community both inside and foreign the government is wrestling with that, and I dont think weve wrestled it to the priming yet. In an other(prenominal) words, it is difficult to know whether the house is on fire or biplanes are shooting at each other.5Correspondingly tricky, defense officials say, is how to pinpoint who is doing the attacking. This raises further complications that are clearly at th e heart of the Pentagons mission. At the Council on Foreign Relations Lynn summarized the issue If you dont know who to attribute an attack to, you cant retaliate against that attack, As a result, you cant deter through punishment, you cant deter by retaliating against the attack. He discussed the complexities that make cyberwar so different from, say, nuclear missiles, which of course come with a return address.6The cyber threat is precise much(prenominal) a part of our incumbent reality. Over the last several long time several NATO members and partners, including the linked States, have been targeted by complete(a) cyber attacks.EstoniaWhat is commonly believed to be the first known case of one render targeting another by cyber-warfare began on April 27, 2007, when a monumental denial-of-service attack was launched by Russia against Estonia over a dispute involving a statue. The attack crippled wind vane settles of government ministries, political parties, risingspapers, banks, and companies.7The attack was nicknamed Web War One and it caused a resonation within transatlantic national security circles.8The German saucyspaper Deutsche Welle wrote that Estonia is particularly unprotected to cyber attacks because it is one of the most wired countries in the world. Nearly eachone in Estonia conducts banking and other daily flakeivities on line. So when the cyber attack occurred, it nearly shut Estonia down.9Then-EU education Society and Media commissioner Viviane Reding called the attacks a wakeup call, commenting that if people do not to a lower placestand the prod now, they never allow. Her reaction was to incorporate a response into an EU-wide law on identity theft over the Internet.10Additionally, NATO did establish a Cyber Center of integrity in Tallinn, which leave be discussed later in the essay.Georgia spell not a NATO member, Georgia is a NATO partner, and the April 2008 Bucharest Summit state that it will become a member at some u nspecified time in the future, a promise reiterated at the November 2010 Lisbon Summit.11Weeks in front the August 2008 Russian land invasion and air attack, Georgia was musical theme to an extensive, coordinated cyber attack. American experts estimated that the attacks against Georgias Internet stem began as early as July 20, with coordinated barrages of millions of requests- known as distributed denial of service, or DDOS, attacks- that overloaded and effectively shut down Georgian servers.12The pressure was intensified during the early age of the war, effectively shutting down critical communications in Georgia.after defacing Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvilis web site and integrating a slideshow delineation Saakashvili as Hitler, coming up with identical images of both Saakashvili and Hitlers public appearances, the site remained under a sustained DDoS attack. Writing as the attacks were under way, security consultant Dancho Danchev believed it smells like a third le tter watchword agencys propaganda arm has managed to somehow supply the creative for the defacement of Georgia Presidents official web site, thereby forgetting a simple rule of engagement in such(prenominal)(prenominal) a conflict- happen forwarding the responsibility of the attack to each and every Russian or Russian supporter that ever attacked Georgian sites apply publicly obtainable DDOS attack tools in a coordinated fashion.13Bill Woodcock, the research shipor at Packet Clearing House, a California-based non-profit-making group that tracks Internet security trends, noted that the attacks represented a landmark the first use of a cyber attack in conjunction with an fortify military invasion.14The nature of cyber attacks is such that, two and a half years later, there is still no definitive answer on who caused the attack. They certainly emanated from Russia, but the precise role of Moscows military and intelligence serve remains unclear. Given that the cyber attacks pr eceded and accompanied conventional military attacks, there appears to be a link to the Russian government. A March 2009 delineate by Greylogic reason out Russias Foreign Military Intelligence agency (the GRU) and Federal trade protection dish out (the FSB), rather than patriotic hackers, were likely to have p entered a chance on role in coordinating and organizing the attacks. They added, The available evidence supports a smashed likelihood of GRU/ FSB readiness and direction at a high level while affirming on Nashi intermediaries and the phenomenon of crowd-sourcing to obfuscate their involvement and implement their strategy.15United StatesIn a 2010 essay for Foreign Affairs, Lynn revealed thatin 2008, the US subdivision of excuse suffered a significant compromise of its classified military ready reckoner networks. It began when an infected flash drive was inserted into a US military lap turn over computer at a base in the Middle East. The flash drives cattish comput er code, placed there by a foreign intelligence agency, uploaded itself onto a network go by by the US Central Command. That code spread undetected on both classified and unclassified systems, establishing what amounted to a digital beach item, from which data could be transferred to servers under foreign control.16The upshot is that adversaries have acquired thousands of files from US networks and from the networks of US allies and industry partners, including weapons blueprints, operational plans, and surveillance data.17Lynn classified this attack as the most significant breach of US military computers ever and stated that it served as an important wake-up call.18He acknowledged that to that point, we did not think our classified networks could be penetrated.19The result of this new awareness was process Buckshot Yankee, a fourteen-month program that rid US systems of the agent.btz worm and helped put across to a major reorganization of the armed eviscerates randomness defens es, including the creation of the militarys new Cyber Command.20United KingdomIn a speech at the 2011 Munich security department Conference, British foreign secretary William Hague revealed that a series of cyber attacks on his sphere took place the previous year. He noted that in late declination a spoofed email purporting to be from the White House was sent to a large number of international recipients who were directed to click on a link that then downloaded a variant of ZEUS. The UK Government was targeted in this attack and a large number of emails bypassed some of our filters.21Additionally, sometime in 2010 the national security interests of the UK were targeted in a deliberate attack on our defense industry. A malicious file posing as a report on a nuclear Trident missile was sent to a defense contractor by someone masquerading as an employee of another defense contractor. dandy protective security meant that the email was detected and blocked, but its purpose was undou btedly to steal information relating to our most sensitive defense projects.22Finally, in February 2011, three of my staff were sent an email, apparently from a British colleague outside the FCO, working on their region. The email claimed to be about a outgoing visit to the region and looked quite innocent. In fact it was from a contradictory state intelligence agency and contained computer code embedded in the attached document that would have attacked their machine. Luckily, our systems identified it and s conduceped it from ever stretching my staff.23Still, the prevalence and sophistication of these attacks are a principal reason why cybersecurity and cyber-crime were listed as two of the top five priorities in the UKs topic Security dodge.24Given the interconnectivity of the Internet, Hague argued that more comprehensive international collaboration is vital, noting that, while cyber security is on the agendas of some 30 multilateral organizations, from the UN to the OSCE and the G8, the problem is that much of this parameter is fragmented and lacks focus. He continued, We believe there is a deprivation for a more comprehensive, structured dialogue to begin to build consensus among like-minded countries and to lay the basis for agreement on a set of standards on how countries should act in cyberspace.25US- European Attitudinal DifferencesWe begin to be able to discern a pattern The United States and the United Kingdom take cyber security very seriously and view it primarily through the lens of national security. The EU and most Western European members of NATO see it primarily as a national infrastructure problem. In the run-up to the November 2010 Lisbon NATO Summit, Pentagon officials were pressing very firmly to incorporate a conceit of active cyber defense into the revise NATO Strategic Concept. Lynn argued that the Cold War concepts of shared warning apply in the 21st century to cyber security. Just as our air defenses, our missile defenses have been tie in so too do our cyber defenses need to be linked as well. However, this notion was firmly rejected by the Europeans, with the French particularly adamant.26USCYBERCOMA July 2010 Economist story proclaimed After land, sea, air and space, warfare has entered the fifth part domain cyberspace.27It noted that President Obama had declared the digital infrastructure a strategic national asset and had appointed Howard Schmidt, the former head of security at Microsoft, as the first cybersecurity tsar. Peter Coates notes that the air force had actually anticipated this move in December 2005, declaring cyber a fifth domain when it changed its mission statement to To fly and fight in air, space, and cyberspace. In November of the following year, it redesignated the 8th Air posture to become Air Force Cyberspace Command.28In May 2010 the Defense department launched a new subunified command, United States Cyber Command, with Gen. Keith Alexander dual-hatted as its chief while contin uing on as director of the National Security Agency. CYBERCOM is charged with the responsibility to direct the operations and defense of specified Department of Defense information networks and put up to, and when directed, conduct full spectrum military cyberspace operations in order to enable actions in all domains, ensure US/ Allied granting immunity of action in cyberspace and deny the aforementioned(prenominal) to our adversaries.29As the scale of measurement of cyberwarfares threat to US national security and the US economy has come into view, the Pentagon has built layered and robust defenses around military networks and inaugurated the new US Cyber Command to integrate cyber-defense operations across the military. The Pentagon is now working with the Department of Homeland Security to protect government networks and critical infrastructure and with the United States closest allies to expand these defenses internationally. An enormous amount of foundational work remains, but the US government has begun putting in place various initiatives to crusade the United States in the digital age.30Even with stepped-up vigilance and resources, Lynn admits, adversaries have acquired thousands of files from US networks and from the networks of US allies and industry partners, including weapons blueprints, operational plans, and surveillance data.31The cyber policy of the United States is rapidly evolving, with major developments under way even as I write this essay. The White House issued a new International Strategy for Cyberspace in May 2011. While not by any means moving away from a defense-oriented posture- indeed, it generated breathless commentary by declaring the right to meet cyber attacks with a kinetic response- it sought to bring commercial, individual, diplomatic, and other interests into the equation. This was followed by a new Department of Defense cyber strategy in July 2011, which built on Lynns Foreign Affairs essay.European lucre and info S ecurity Agency (ENISA)While CYBERCOM is the most powerful and well-funded US cyber agency, the lead EU cyber agency is ENISA, the European Network and Information Security Agency. Whereas CYBERCOM is run by a general with an intelligence background, ENISA is run by a physics professor with long experience in the IT sector, including the energy industry, indemnification company engineering, aviation, defense, and space industry.32The agencys mission is to develop a culture of Network and Information Security for the benefit of citizens, consumers, business and public sector organizations in the European Union.33In December 2010 ENISA released a report identifying what it sees as the top security risks and opportunities of smartphone use and gives security advice for businesses, consumers and governments. The agency considers spyware, poor data cleansing when recycling phones, accidental data leakage, and unauthorized premium-rate phone calls and SMSs as the top risks.34New regulati ons are proposed that would see the perpetrators of cyber attacks and the producers of related and malicious software prosecuted, and crook sanctions increased to a maximum two-year sentence. European countries would in addition be obliged to respond quickly to requests for help when cyber attacks are perpetrated, and new pan-European wicked offences will be created for the illegal interception of information systems. Home affairs Commissioner Cecilia Malmstrm added that wickedizing the creation and selling of malicious software and improving European jurisprudence cooperation would help Europe step up our efforts against cybercrime.ENISAs new mandate will let the agency organize pan-European cybersecurity exercises, public- private network resilience partnerships, and risk assessment and awareness campaigns. ENISAs funding will also be boosted, and its wariness board will get a stronger supervisory role. ENISAs mandate is also to be extended by five years to 2017. The new di rectional will also supersede a 2005 council framework decision on cybercrime because that previous regulation did not focus sufficiently on evolving threats- in particular, large-scale simultaneous attacks against information systems, such as Stuxnet, and the increasing criminal use of botnets. Stuxnet was recently used to attack Irans nuclear power infrastructure, and a single botnet, Rustock, is estimated to be responsible for two-fifths of the worlds spam.35Additionally, EU states are constrained by Directive 95/ 46/ EC, better known as the selective information Protection Directive, which provides enormous protection for any information relating to an identified or identifiable natural person. Compare this to the USA Patriot Act, which gives enormous valuation reserve to US law enforcement and intelligence agencies to access electronic data held by US companies in order to investigate and deter terrorist activities. In June 2011 Gordon Frazer, managing director of Microsoft UK , set off a firestorm when he declared that European customer data stored on cloud computing services by companies with a US presence cannot be guaranteed the protections afforded under the Data Protection Directive, riding horse off a demand from some EU lawmakers to resolve this issue.36GermanyIn late February 2011 Germanys outgoing minister of the interior, doubting Thomas de Maizire, unveiled the countrys Nationale Cyber-Sicherheitsstrategie (National Cyber Security Strategy).37To American eyes, the fact that it was the interior ministry, not the defense ministry, issuing the strategy is striking. It was no accident this is by no means a defense document.The documents insane asylum notes that in Germany all players of social and economic life use the possibilities provided by cyberspace. As part of an increasingly interconnected world, the state, critical infrastructures, businesses and citizens in Germany consider on the reliable functioning of information and communication technology and the Internet. Among the threats listed go IT products and components, the break-down of information infrastructures or serious cyber attacks may have a right smart negative impact on the performance of technology, businesses and the administration and hence on Germanys social lifelines. Contrast this with Lynns analogy of biplanes over France, and his pondering at what threshold do you consider something an attack?German security scholar Thomas Rid laments that the strategy is coming a bit late and that Germanys thinking lags that of the United States and the United Kingdom. Beyond that, he notes that the two agencies created to manage cyber issues are woefully understaffed and tasked with myriad responsibilities related tangentially at ruff to cyber security. And, according to a cyber kodex established in the new strategy, German interests in data security would be pursued in international organizations such as the UN, the OSCE, the European Council, the OECD, a nd NATO- in that order.38United Kingdom as OutlierAs is frequently the case on matters of international security, the United Kingdom is much more in line with its American cousin than its neighbors on the Continent. In an October 12, 2010, speech at Londons International Institute for Strategic Studies, Iain Lobban, director of GCHQ (the UKs National Security Agency analogue, responsible for signals intelligence) noted that his country combines the intelligence and information assurance missions in a single agency, an arrangement shared by only a few other countries, most notably the US. It gives us a richer view of vulnerabilities and threats than those who consider them purely from the point of view of defense.39He confessed to constant barrages of spam, worms, theft of intellectual fittingty on a massive scale, some of it not just sensitive to the commercial enterprises in question but of national security concern too, and all manner of other attacks that have caused significant disruption to Government systems. Consequently, his government was looking to importantly increase its investment in the cyber realm even at a time when the global recession was forcing significant austerity in other departments, including in more traditional military assets.40Thomas Rid notes the unmistakable breadth of Lobbans focus Cyber encompasses, for instance, more and more online government services (read steadily increasing vulnerability) critical national infrastructure, publicly or privately run online crime in all its facets espionage (both industrial and governmental), and such things as the proper norms of behavior for responsible states.41The implications are vast, as Lobban hints and Rid explicates partnerships of a new kind are needed to deal with cyber threats and risks. International partnerships, with like-minded countries that need to establish and maintain appropriate norms of behavior in crisis situations- and intersectoral partnerships, between government agencies and industry, especially the high-tech sector.42In his Munich Security Conference speech, Hague noted that we rely on computer networks for the water in our taps, the electricity in our kitchens, the sat navs in our cars, the running of trains, the storing of our medical records, the availability of food in our supermarkets and the cling of money into high street cash machines. Further, Many government services are now delivered via the internet, as is education in many classrooms. In the UK, 70 percent of younger internet users bank online and two thirds of all adults shop on the internet.43Given the new awareness of vulnerabilities and the degree of dependence, then, the United Kingdoms new National Security Strategy ranks cyber attack and cyber crime in our top five highest priority risks. This is not lip service. At the same time that the British military is suffering such severe cutbacks that the purple Navy is reduced to sharing a single aircraft carrier with France , the current budget provided 650 million of new funding for a national cyber-security program, which will improve our capabilities in cyber-space and pull together government efforts. As part of that effort, Hague said, We have established a new Ministerial Group on cyber security which I chair. And we have boosted the UKs cyber capabilities with the establishment of a new Defense Cyber Operations Group, incorporating cyber security into the mainstream of our defense planning and operation.44NATO ResponsesAfter months of study and upset the 2010 NATO Summit in Lisbon issued a new strategic concept on November 19, 2010. In it, cyber issues were officially recognized for the first time as a core alliance mission. Recognizing that cyber attacks are becoming more frequent, more organized and more costly in the damage that they inflict, NATO pledged to develop further our ability to prevent, detect, defend against and recover from cyber-attacks, including by using the NATO planning pr ocess to enhance and coordinate national cyber-defense capabilities, bringing all NATO bodies under centralized cyber protection, and better integrating NATO cyber awareness, warning and response with member nations.45This was followed in June 2011 by a revised NATO policy on cyber defense and a parallel cyber defense action plan. Combined, they offer a coordinated approach to cyber defense across the Alliance with a focus on preventing cyber threats and building resilience. Additionally, all NATO structures will be brought under centralized protection.46What practical actions will flow from these policy statements remains unclear, especially in an era of radically declining budgets. But they give an overview of what it terms NATOs principle cyber defense activities.47Coordinating and Advising on Cyber DefenseThe cyber-defense policy was implemented by NATOs political, military, and technical

A Study On The European Identity

A Study On The europiuman individualism elementAlthough the brain of corporate individuality operator is a post-colonial phenomenon, a few rural aras would spot themselves under a joint individuation element before the fresh multiplication of the 19th Century. In fact, atomic number 63 is historically unique in term that it has been the people living in the guiltless of europium who entertain persistently described themselves as atomic number 63ans since the 17th Century (Pagden, 2002). Indeed, atomic number 63an inwardness emerged as the virtually primary(prenominal) attempt for creating a supra internal entity in the holy and the best example of a Pan-European green individualism as neertheless the sound outs Europe and the European pairing be origi land use as synonyms by millions of people e very(prenominal) day. Nevertheless, an uncertainty of a ordinarys individualism has alship fannyal been the case for Europeans throughout history and the physical as fountainhead as fond borders of Europe has never been distinctly cognise for centuries which be full of wars, tensions, competition and blood.Today, the alike problem continues to exist and many an around former(a)(prenominal) take that it is the major factor blocking the efforts for achieving a fully corporate Europe, as the description and frontiers of a park European identicalness is motionlessness unknown. Indeed, whiz of the nigh authoritative sleep togethers of the European desegregation from a socio- governmental post is the vague concept of a gross European individualism including prospects of European Union Citizenship. Although a commonality European identity had been tenacious closely(p)-nigh for centuries, these argon fairly hot issues in relevance to the half a century colossal history of straight offs European Union. However, I believe how the common European identity is defined is very important for the future locomote of the in tegration process, as nowadays the EU is undergoing trans patter land towards a semi governmental union with an aim to become a global actor in the away governmental arena. What shall be the elements of a common European identity, how shall it be unionizeulized if it is to become a winnerful construct which would define Europe mightily to end the efforts that lasted for much(prenominal) a long fourth dimension?I believe a triumphant common European identity must involve the cover and symbolic realities and it must be rooted to the diversity of market-gardenings which had been bring outd by the long history of Europe (DAppollonia, 2002). Otherwise, if it re importants as a form of thin identity suggested by Habermas (2006), the problems and uncertainties of European identity as well as the poorly functioning European Union citizenship is most likely to exist in the Unions fore retardable future. In fact, a common European identity piece of tail repairly be successfu lly constructed by victorious into account all the ambiguities, contradictions and developments in form of a mavin in diversity principle which can be applied to the globe of Europe rather than building a shallow and artificial construct as it seems to be today. Theoretically, a get together Europe in governmental price is make possible if a united Europe in heathenal terms is established through formulating a collective common identity which may and be conceived as a collection of quadruplex and heterogeneous values establishd by complicated dynamics of Europes long history. Nevertheless, a united Europe in heathenishal terms shall non ungenerous a homogenous and strictly ordered European baseball club rather the European identity shall celebrate Europes long tradition of diversity.A nonher important question is how should European Union citizenship be defined and what should be the frontiers of cultural implications of much(prenominal) a political formulation. Considering the large-minded cultural diversity and long history that the individual members of the European Union had share in the European continent, a collective identity may prove to be removed too complex to construct, so one may argue that a common European identity is still an illusion. Although Europeans consume a successfully formed a common economical and increasingly political union, they are still far away from the desired level of cultural union and a common identity which seems to be an alarming factor for the next stages of the European integration. Nonetheless, European Union citizenship is an area open to developments and it might be apply as a critically important tool by the European Union leaders to accumulate a common European identity, only if it is formulized correctly. The critical breaker point on the debate of European Union citizenship is that the prevalent Classical Model of Citizenship is based on the structures of nation-state and that is why t his clay sculpture cannot be applied to the European Union, as it is a whole antithetic level of organization. On the opposite hand, Post-National citizenship is a modern approach to the issue of European identity and it is suitable to Europe in order to flip its goals of unification and deepening through building a stronger common identity in the twenty-first Century.This paper is organized in several sections. European identity from a historical perspective is analyzed in the premiere go bad the current status of European identity and the issue of national identities in contrast to the common European identity is discussed in the quest part a hot European identity and suggestions for a new formulation is given in the third part a sketch history of European Union efforts and hop on on building a common identity is examined in the fourth part and finally the aspects of European Union Citizenship is discussed in the fifth part of this paper.After all, this paper argues that a common identity in form of a collective European identity is clearly necessary for the Union at this stage of integration, and it is a critical element for the future of the European integration insure oddly as our world is getting smaller as well as more(prenominal) fragmented simultaneously collect to the complex dynamics of international relations every day at the age of globalization. European Citizenship is very much connected to the issue of European identity and it is the key to achieving such a strong common European identity when it is formulized as a Post-National phenomenon. The Europeans must derive their power from the diversity of their purifications by building a thick identity for Europe rather than a thin identity which consists of merely political rights save the Europeans shall not overlook the uniqueness of the chaste and the similarities they share in comparison to the rest of the world emphasized by the Unity in Diversity principle. Today, it is whi le for the Europeans to unite under one roof in socio-political terms, complete the long standing task of be the boundaries of the European civilization by establishing a common and collective European identity in order to carry on the progress of the European integration project in a globalized world. Nonetheless, the question of possibilities of the Europeans to achieve such a high level of cultural as well as political unity remains a question and it is subject to a whole different level of research. However, often seen as a regional product of globalization itself-importance, I believe the European integration project cannot progress any further without achieving a common European identity which is more critical than ever today in order to cudgel the challenges of globalization in the 21st Century. identity operator has endlessly been a bad concept because it is uncertain, fluid and highly flexible. Identity is the way to define ones self and to differentiate from the others . If taken literally, identity means equal, identical. Identity is not electrostatic but dynamic, and it can be defined in different ways in different circumstances. Identity is construct, which cannot be constructed immediately but only in time. It is not a fixed, constant and pre-given entity while identity composition is heavily dependent on how one is sensed by the others. acknowledgment implies belonging or membership, in turn which implies the exclusion of non-members (Bretherton Vogler,1999 236).In other talking to, the sole purpose of identity is to separate self from the others in a sense. Moreover, identities are multiple in nature, or still kaleidoscopic. A person may have a individual(a) identity, but it allow be made up of many levels of loyalty and identification (Von Benda-Beckmann Verkuyten, 1995 18). Meanwhile, identities change, because they are based on experiences, which themselves change over time and environment as it is possible to nominate ones se lf with more than one thing at a time such as class and gender, or pietism and age. Therefore in that respect are various elements of ones identity and these various elements in an identity may well be contradictory (Von Benda-Beckmann Verkuyten, 1995 12).On the other hand, a collective identity means the attitudes, which all members of that group have in common in their thoughts and behavior which differentiates them from the other (Munch, 2001 137). incorporated identities can provide existential meaning for people, thus they are primary means of unity in a society which give additional stability especially during periods of upheaval. Collective identities can generate a degree of continuity between individuals and their friendly environment, and can confer social recognition and approval (Von Benda-Beckmann Verkuyten, 1995 24). Therefore, collective identities are defined mainly by culture from a historical point of view rather than biological genes, ethnicity, nationa lism or simple political rights. Finally, It they are use to construct union and smellingings of cohesion and holism, a concept to give the impression that all individuals are equal in the imagined community (Strath, 2002 387). From the perspective of political science there are two types of political identities a civic identity and a cultural identity. The cultural explanation of political identity entails a sense of belonging of an individual towards a particular group which can mostly defined by its consistent cultural or ethnic values. On the other hand, the civic comment of political identity involves with the identification of an individual mostly in form of citizenry with a political structure, which includes political institutions, rights, duties and rules (Bruter, 2004 26). Therefore, a cultural European identity implies a reference to Europe as a continent, a civilization and a cultural entity whereas a civic European identity implies a reference to the political and i nstitutional aspects of European Union identity largely in the form of EU citizenship.Europe has always been more of a mental construct than a geographical or social entity (Lowenthal, 2000 314). Europe has no cancel frontiers both in geographic and sociological terms. Therefore it had never been easy to acquire a singular definition of European identity because the borders of Europe had always been dynamic, and no one knew where Europe started and Europe ended (Pagden, 2002). A European identity is an abstraction and a fiction without essential proportions (Strath, 2002 387). The concept of a European identity is an vagary expressing artificial notions of unity rather than an identity of equality. In this sense, the concept of European identity is inscribed in a long history of political reflection on the concept of Europe. From the perspective of history, Europe has been united as a singular entity in various settings for a number of time in its past such as the romish Empire, the Holy papistic Empire, the Napoleonic Empire, and arguably the Nazi Third Reich. Identity was only conceptualized as a macro-level collective phenomenon by the intellectual elites of Europe on the other hand, for the rural masses of Europe, identity was a local term associated with the micro-level, seldom the nation and never an incident as large as the continent of Europe (Pagden, 2002). In different period of history, a common European identity had been defined on different stern. In the Middle Ages, Christianity was the main define characteristic of European identity, whereas in modern times, the emergence of the nation state, periods of nationalism and subsequentlywards democracy and secularism has been the common characteristic of the Europeans. Meanwhile, Christianity lost its ascendence yet it arguably remained as one of the important components of European identity.Today, the European Union similar to the continent of Europe can be characterized by overlapping and un clear boundaries. From a geographical perspective, the EU has fuzzy boundaries due to the ongoing enlargement processes since the 1970s (Risse, 2003 490). Although the geographical borders of Europe are not objectively defined particularly in the east, a state without a geographical relevance to the European continent cannot become a part of the European Union, even if it shares the EUs collective values and norms. Moreover what adds to the uncertainty of Europes borders is that boundaries of the EU may change according to different policy fields such as the Schengen includes the non EU member Norway but at the comparable time it does not include the EU member state the United Kingdom. Therefore, startle of all the lack of solid geographical boundaries weakens efforts of the EU to be seen as a singular entity by its own people (Castano, 2004). On the contrary, diversity shall be the main characteristic of European identity from a cultural point of view. Religious and cultural heri tages including Roman law, political democracy, parliamentary institutions, conversion humanism, rationalism, romanticism characterize the common identity of the Europeans (Smith, 1992). On the other hand, there are undeniable socioeconomic, cultural, national and ethnic differences among the member states of the European Union. Nevertheless, this reality is reflected in the motto of the Union which is unity in diversity from a positive point of view.A collective political culture is an important feature of the common European identity. The Greeks gave Europe the science and philosophy and the Romans gave it the idea of single continent and unity which created Europes strong cultural and political origins. The divers(prenominal) and multiple cultures of the ancient Europe divided up a single identity as they were brought together under a common system of Roman law. The people of Europe also shared a common language, Latin, and after Europe slowly converted to Christianity they acq uired a common religion. Christianity has been a crucial part of the European identity and it played a key character reference to create its internal cohesion and to de printate its relationship with the rest of the world. promote references are made to Europes identity besides its heritage of classical Greco-Roman civilization and Christianity such as the ideas of the Enlightenment, Science, Reason, Progress, Industrialization, Democracy and Individualization as the fondness elements of this claimed European legacy (Wintle, 1996 13-16). Hellenism, Romanticism, welfare society and cross-fertilization of diversity can be added to this list (Garcias, 1993 7-9), while one may argue that Europes force values include its commitments to an undivided continent, to individual freedom, and to the universalism of humanity (Havel, 1996).However, this unity never reached to the point of communion a common European culture. A single body of citizenry or a common cultural identity could not be reached even in the peak of Europes history of unity. When the differences indoors Europe are emphasized, they are often in the form of unity in diversity religious differences such as Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox Christianity, and linguistic differences including Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages are obvious yet they are seen as correlate, Catholic-Romance, Protestant-Germanic, Orthodox-Slavic, and essentially are underlying the major ethnic cleavages and conflicts in the history of Europe. Anthony Smith is among the scholars who are skeptical of the possibility of a common European identity because they could not find a common culture across the European continent, and even more critically they claim that Europe lacks of a shared set of myths, friendship and symbols these elements which they find crucial to create post-national identity (Smith, 1992 72-73). Furthermore, Europe lacks of a shared historical and cultural meat as which is the largest source of divisi on among Europeans. Other obstacles to a common European identity include linguistic diversity and its tripartite religious division. In fact, a major difference among EU countries is the persistence of linguistic diversity, even though in practical level English has become the dominant language in Europe. Language does not only have an submissive but also an emotional dimension and peoples sense of nationality is often laced up with their mother tongue (Guibernau, 2001 192).On the other side of the debate, scholars such as Michael Wintle are more optimistic on the possibility of creating a European identity. Indeed, the existence of the EU identity in the form of converge education standards, educational exchanges, and the organization of a European civil society is already established in most parts of Europe. Wintle argues that a European identity was previously already created during the high Middle Age (Wintle, 1996 19-22), and it can be easily established today considering t he forces of globalization. For now, the major success of the EU in fostering its identity has been special with the increasing free trend of people across European borders, which has accelerated since the 1985 and formalized in 1990 Schengen accords parallelly correlated with the rising impact of globalization. Increased interaction among peoples of Europe would also countenance cultural exchanges and this could foster a stronger sense of a shared community. genteelness and high culture shall play a key role in European Unions cultural policy, because these two factors have an important effect on the insane asylum of the EU identity. Education is obviously one of the crucial dimensions in any attempt to develop the future identity of the EU or at least more understanding and convergence among Europeans high culture unites Europeans against the low culture which separates them. After all, the development of the EU identity result be the outcome of a long process in which botto m-up as well as top-down initiatives are likely to be employed (Guibernau, 2001 183-184).The idea of Europe as well as the identity of Europeans are constructed over time with processes of contention and bargaining. Gerard Delanty argues that a European finis is not an entity with cohesion and fixed boundaries, but a floppy concept, with no clear borders and with internal opposition and contradictions, discursively shaped in litigious social bargaining processes (Delanty, 1995 1999). In other words, the images of Europe do not exist as a natural phenomenon but are discursively shaped by internal as well as external forces (Strath, 2002). A basic step in the process of creating a collective identity is to delimit itself in relation to the other. Central to ones identifications are images of others. in like manner any identity, European identity necessarily contains a demarcation from the non-European. This is natural to all distinctions, and they are both inclusive and exclusive . The boundaries of Europe can only be drawn and the identity of Europe can only be realized in the mirror of others. Indeed, Europe does not exist without non-Europe and that non-Europe does not exist without Europe. Many centuries ago, the Europeans defined people living in the wedlock as uncivilized and people living in the south as oriental (Pagden, 2002). Furthermore, the Greeks labeled the non-Greek speaking people as barbarians, even if that word would surely have a different meaning by that time. In nearer times, although the Russians shared many features with a European society including the same religion, it could not reach the formal limits of a Romanized civilization thus perceived as a barbaric empire or the orient, depending on the time. Moreover, European belief of its superiority relied on the common features of European societies such as science and detached arts. Thus the rest of the world could only be portrayed as actors in relation to Europe, in other words al ways remained as the other.According to Delanty, Europe has been always invented and reinvented on the basis of division and strategy for the construction of difference from the other starting from Christian identity against Islam in the Middle-Ages, after that in the colonial politics to the pertly World, and to the ethnic minorities in the contemporary European Union (Delanty, 1995). Therefore, historical experience suggests that the new European identity may be constructed on the other which may be the United States, the East, Islam or the European past itself. Samuel Huntington has argued that religion provides the best common means of historically distinguishing between Europeans and the other, especially in terms of the confrontation between the Judeo-Christian tradition and Islam (Huntington, 1996). However, at the same time, the separation between east Orthodox Christianity and Western variations of Christianity has, for a long time, been crucial in establishing a division between Western and Eastern Europe partially reinforced in the Cold War, divisions between universality and Protestantism and separation between North and South (Guibernau, 2001).Today, the European Union is oft argued to be a fortress for the other and the EU is often referred to as a Christian Club, because historically all states on the continent of Europe had Christian societies. The Ottoman Empire was the greatest enemy of European states as well as Christianity in the Middle Ages which made Islam the primary charactersitic of the other for Europeans from the perspective of history. Today, the accession dialogues of Turkey into the European Union raise wide public opposition in Europe while the European Union officials make constant efforts to prove their allegiance to non-religious, non-ethnic but solely liberal and non discriminatory Copenhagen Criteria independent from historical aspects of the other which has actually been extensively used to define the European identity. Finally, Europe is unique because it has possessed an identity as a cultural space which gave birth to political unions throughout its history. However, it has never succeeded to constitute a single nation-state or a unified ethnic group. Although the European Union with its single currency and supranational political and healthy institutions changed these historical facts to an extent, it is only possible with the means of a common European identity which will carry Europe to the next stage of integration which it always aimed but failed to achieve during its long history. Nevertheless, history has already be that it will surely be hard to overcome uncertainties of a common European identity at the level of the masses.Over the past millennium, the advancements of European civilization gave rise to the elites living on the continent of Europe who feel increasingly attached to Europe as a whole and shared dreams of a united continent. However, Europe as a realm communion a common history as well as a common destiny has been largely abandoned by fixed prejudices on often nationalic and ethnic grounds. National interests and biases at local, national, and global levels have prevented the masses of European people from viewing themselves collectively (Lowenthal, 2000 315). However, today, forces of globalization, advancements in communication theory technologies and media transmission of everyday popular culture now promotes the sense of being European among larger segments of society other than the European elites. Although a sincerely trans-European society is still in its infancy, many of its essential elements are already in place this time largely due to the forces of globalization. Most European states are increasingly democratic in reality their economies are for the most part market driven their popular culture grows more same as communication technologies expand under the forces of globalization in the 21st Century (Waterman, 1999 23). Therefore, Europe is at the stage of defining its identity today however which criteria are being deployed to define Europe, Europeans, Europeanness and their respective boundaries is critically important. A common European identity must be constructed by defining and understanding the historical roots of outstanding features of the European society in relation to the notion of citizenship, which will be discussed in depth in the following parts developed in the past over the drop of Europe. For sure, Europe is being redefined as a result of a complex set of processes, but an important question is what sort of Europe is emerging from them?There is certainly a structured symmetry in the perception of the European Union as the coincidence of a homogenized socio-political space, a unified regulatory space of an EU super-state, a singular European civil society surpassing existing national and regional differences in culture and identity (Hudson, 2000). In some respects there has been progress t owards such an ideal of European civil society. For example, the Council of Europe and the European practice on Human Rights have had an important role in defining acceptable standards across Europe. The issue of European identity and the criteria used to advert Europeans is clearly a critical one for the political and social fair play for the European Union. Europe will exist as an unquestionable political community only when European identity permeates peoples lives and daily existence (Demos 1998). Identity is a key issue which is continuously changing and thats the reason why it is so hard to define especially in a world of fast changes in the 21st Centurys globalization. The member states of todays enlarged EU have become multi-ethnic and multi-cultural societies with various structural phenomenon ranging from the immigrant community of France to Post-Communist yet ethnic communities of the Central and Eastern European states. As the EU expanded eastwards in the last two rou nds of enlargements, the issue of defining a European identity became even more critical for sake of integrity and stability of the Union.One conception of a singular European identity would see it constructed through a process similar to that involved in the creation of national identities in the 19th and the 20th Centuries. Ironically, while the aim was to create those national identities in the past, the challenge that Europeans face today would be to go on them for the creation of Europeannes. However, the current trends at local European level are quite different from the interests of Europeanists at the supranational level. There are pressures from nation states and their citizens to resist any further transfer of national sovereignty as well as erosion of national identity (Hudson, 2000). In fact, the success of extreme right wing political parties in important European countries such as Austria and France may be seen as a sign of the reappearance of dangerous jingoistic an d racist ambitions which the peoples of Europe have most probably experienced more than any other continent in the world history.Eric Hobsbawm has proclaimed that nationalism is dead (Hobsbawm, 1990). On the contrary, Llobera argues that national identities are certainly not eternal, but the time of their demise has not yet arrived (Llobera, 2003). In fact, national identities are still dominant in Europe. new-fashioned surveys show that, people in Europe prefer maintaining their national identity and sovereignty, but increasing number of people have accepted European identity in addition to their national identities. Therefore, European nationalism is some other important component of a common European identity and it has been a major ideological tool for unifying nation states as well as the Europeans as a whole throughout Europes history. To start with, the European Union, with its both intergovernmental and supranational characteristics represents a far different type of state -organization than a classical nation state. The main distinguishing characteristics of the EU from the nation-state are the absence of a shared language, a uniform media, common education system and a central state structure (Shore, 2000 64). Furthermore, the powers of the EU rely on the sharing of sovereignty of its member states. European unification is a progressive rule of limiting individual nation states to practice any kind of stabbing nationalism and this is makes up an important part of the European identity. At this point, nationalist Euroskeptics may argue that building a common Europe and an identity for it means destroying nations. However, a general feeling of Europeanness and loyalty to Europe in a cultural sense, does not need to conflict with national identities (Andreani, 1999).A successful construct of European identity must include the concrete and symbolic realities created within time. The European states have not always been nationalist through Europes long history. The definition of nationalism counts on the idea of nation and territory while the definition of a European nationalism depends on the historical and ideological evolution of the European nation states and aspirations for a post-national Europe. In fact, the aspirations that underlie in the roots of the put upation of the European Union are parallel to European cosmopolitanism in the 18th and the 19th centuries. From the Enlightenment to the stemma of the ECSC after the Second World War European nationalism found two separate meanings one as an antinational Pan-European idea of a new united Europe that limits the sovereignty of the nation states, and the other as a pro-national ideology to create or legitimate new nation states (DAppollonia, 2002).Historically, cosmopolitanism reflected intentions for a European unity, and gave rise to anti-national European nationalism. European nationalism was characterized by the will to protect the European interests and its supremac y from non-Europeans as well as defend Europe from itself by creating a federation. It can be argued that economic development, commercial-grade prosperity, intellectual-supremacy and military power were the factors making Europe homogeneous and created a united European identity beyond national borders to an extent. Some intellectuals as well as economists believe that the nation state is an outdated political and economic entity, and nationalism is merely an expression of old prejudiced and narrow-minded ideas. European nationalism defined itself similar to the nation state through common identity and culture, territory, historical memory building, and economic and political objectives to defend self-interests. The defensive conception of European nationalism on the other hand had always been a driving factor, yet the pro-nationalist ideologies had been the major cause underlying the wars of modern times. As Europe was divided into aggressive nation states, the idea of Europe h ad increasingly converged. Although the wars were dividing factors themselves, their interpretations by the Europeanists became powerful unifying factors for Europe. The irony of European nationalism is that it depends on the memory of events that divided rather than united the continent (DAppollonia, 2002).Although it used the same definitions of nation and Europe with the anti-national European nationalism from time to time, it remained limited to the strict logic of the national framework. Transnational solidarities were necessity to establish European unity under either a supranational or an intergovernmental structure. For some intellectuals, European nationalism was the only way to protect the autonomy of nations and the liberty of the individuals. Conceptualizing of the European Union citizenship and creation of the Committee of the Regions in the EU were seen as efforts of the Pro-national European nationalists. These forms of European nationalism rejected the form of narro w nationalism while it showed ambitions to reinforce the intermediary actions between state and individual, between th